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ENERGY / NUCLEAR

Nuclear energy

ENERGY · NUCLEAR

Nuclear energy

A low-carbon, dispatchable electricity source — about twelve grams of CO₂ per kWh, providing baseload. Its founding constraint: defence in depth, a stack of barriers and safety systems. Its revival: fleet life extension, the EPR and small modular reactors (SMRs).

The main families

Reactors

PWR/BWR, EPR, SMR, Gen IV

The current fleet is dominated by pressurized (PWR) and boiling (BWR) water reactors. The EPR (Gen III+) strengthens safety; small modular reactors (SMRs) target series manufacturing; Gen IV explores new cycles.

Fuel cycle

Enrichment, reprocessing, waste

From enrichment and fuel fabrication to reprocessing and long-lived waste management, through to deep geological storage (Cigéo, Onkalo). A very long-term issue.

I&C & safety

Defence in depth, class 1E

Safety-classified instrumentation & control (IEC 61513, 60880), redundancy and diversity (analog/digital), rigorous qualification. The control room and human factors are central.

Key challenges

  • Safety & defence in depth — multiple independent barriers, redundancy and diversity; the TMI, Chernobyl and Fukushima accidents underpin today's requirements.
  • Dispatchable low-carbon — about 12 g CO₂/kWh as baseload: a stable complement to variable renewables, with no direct emissions.
  • Safety I&C — safety-classified systems (IEC 61513, 60880), analog/digital diversity and qualification: digitalization must prove its independence.
  • SMRs & new reactors — series-built small modular reactors, for electricity but also industrial heat, hydrogen and cogeneration.
  • Cycle & waste — very long-term management, deep geological storage (Cigéo, Onkalo) and life extension of the existing fleet.

See also

DecarbonizationGreen hydrogenElectricity & gridFunctional safetyCybersecurity OT

Nuclear-specific standards

  • IEC 61513 — Instrumentation & control important to safety: the nuclear application of IEC 61508 (general framework).
  • IEC 60880 / IEC 62138 — Software for safety systems (category A; categories B and C).
  • IEC 61226 / IEC 60709 — Safety classification of functions and systems; separation and independence.
  • IAEA SSR-2/1 — IAEA safety requirements for nuclear power plant design.

Related standard pages on IndustryHub

Major players

Operators

EDF, Rosatom, CGN, KEPCO, Constellation, Cameco (combustible).

Reactors (Gen III+)

Framatome (EPR), Westinghouse (AP1000), GE Hitachi, KHNP.

SMR

NuScale, Rolls-Royce SMR, GE Hitachi (BWRX-300), TerraPower, EDF (Nuward).

Safety I&C

Framatome, Westinghouse, Rolls-Royce, Mitsubishi Electric.

Landmark facts

FactYearLocationLesson
Three Mile Island1979Pennsylvania, USAA partial meltdown with no fatalities, partly caused by a misleading operator interface. Transformed safety culture, training and control-room design (human factors, HMI).
Chernobyl & Fukushima1986 / 2011USSR / JapanThe two major accidents in civilian history shaped defence in depth, barrier independence and the post-Fukushima "stress tests" imposed on the entire global fleet.
Revival & SMRs2020sGlobalDecarbonization is reviving nuclear: life extensions, new EPRs, the COP28 "triple nuclear" pledge, and a wave of series-built small modular reactor (SMR) projects.

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